The Ability of Yeast to Ferment Sugar Molecules

All cells need to have a constant energy supply. The two processes by which this energy is attained from photosynthetic materials to form ATP are cellular respiration and fermentation. (Hyde,2012). Fermentation is a way of harvesting chemical energy that does not require oxygen. (Reece et al. 2012). When the body is deprived of oxygen it will then begin to meet its energy needs through the slow process of fermentation. In our lab we investigated alcoholic fermentation by using yeast, which can flourish in an low energy environment in anaerobic conditions.In this lab our goal was to discover the rate at which yeast will ferment different sized molecules of carbohydrates. In order to perform our experiment we made use of water, glucose, sucrose, and starch. It was hypothesized that glucose, sucrose, then starch would all be used to produce energy during fermentation. Being that glucose is a simple sugar, or monosaccharide, we predicted that glucose would be fermented most quickly. This hypothesis was made based on the idea that glucose is the cell's main source of energy in aerobic cellular respiration. The first step of cellular respiration is glycolysis which breaks down glucose for energy.We predicted that Sucrose would ferment second to glucose since it is a larger molecule composed of glucose and fructose. Finally, we predicted that starch would ferment extremely slow behind all of the other carbohydrates. METHODS AND MATERIALS: On October 31, 2012 in the lab of Greenfield Community College my lab partners, Madeline Hawes, Timothy Walsh and I conducted the following experiment in order to test the effectiveness of yeasts' ability to ferment different carbohydrates. We first filled 6 small flasks with 75 ml of water and 5 drops of phenol red to each flask.Four of these were labeled with the solution that would feed into them and the other two with â€Å"control† and the last with â€Å"increased CO2. † The color of phenol red is orangish-pink wh en there is a neutral pH present. As carbon dioxide is released into this solution from the release of the gas from the yeast filled flasks, the solution turns a light yellow indicating a weak acid. We measured out four weigh boats of 2 grams each of starch and then added 2 grams to each of 4 labeled flasks of 50 ml water, 50 ml Glucose solution, 50 ml Sucrose solution, and 50 ml Starch solution respectively.All of these had been stored in incubators to maintain an optimal temperature of 35 degrees celsius. We put these flasks into our sink which we made into a water bath. We then drained and added hot plate warmed water from a 1000 ml beaker we kept heated in order to maintain the optimal temperature of 35 degrees celsius around the flasks. We swirled the large flasks to mix the solutions and yeast as they sat in the water bath. The flasks containing the yeasts solutions were then stoppered with glass straws and tubings and their extending tubes placed into the matching labeled sma ller flasks adjacent to the sink.I blew through a straw into the flask labeled â€Å"increased CO2. † The phenol red detected the presence of CO2 turning the solution yellow. The â€Å"control† flask was left as a comparison for the remaining yeast filled tubes feeding into the other flasks of phenol red and water. RESULTS: We recorded our first observations at 10 minutes. Just as we hypothesized, the yeast and water experienced no change. In the glucose solution flask, the glucose molecules were being quickly broken down and forming a frothy head, sending a bubble of CO2 through the tube every 2 seconds while turning the phenol red to a light orange.The sucrose solution was bubbling every three seconds and also had turned light orange. At 10 minutes there was no reaction in the Starch solution. The latter data remained consistent with our hypotheses. The glucose solution at 20 minutes was very frothy and bubbly and had turned the phenol red a very light yellow with a consistent bubble through the tube every second indicating a strong presence of CO2. The sucrose, too, had turned light yellow and had continuous bubbles every 2 seconds. The starch had a rare bubble with no noticeable change in the phenol red solution.At the final check in of 40 minutes both the glucose and sucrose had fermented most of the yeast and slowed down on bubbling. The glucose still had the most bubbles occuring. The starch was a lighter pink with little change in the levels of froth in the yeast solution. The water solution still remained completely unchanged. DISCUSSION: Our hypotheses were supported through illustrating that all forms of sugar do provide energy and that glucose, being the smallest molecule, was the most efficient. The control tube contained no sugar and therefore produced no energy. A source of sugar is necessary for glycolysis and fermentation to occur.The strongest presence of carbon dioxide was in glucose, indicated by the bubbles which are a by-pro duct of ethanol fermentation. The rate of fermentation in sucrose was second to glucose and Starch was the least effective at providing a sugar to create energy. The large polysaccharide was difficult for yeast to break down to create the necessary energy that would produce carbon dioxide. Glucose is the most efficient sugar as it is a small monosaccharide which is already the source of energy for the Glycolysis cycle. The largest possible source of error in our experiment is the time in which each solution began its fermentation process.We added the yeast into each flask containing the sugar solutions at staggered times. If this experiment were to be repeated it would be more precise to have four people pour in the yeast and swirl at the exact same time and then stopper the solutions. The only minor inconsistency would be the amount of yeast that was spilled or left in the weigh boats. This could create a discrepancy in the final results. Through this lab I understoodd that in time s of oxygen deprivation the body can still function through the process of fermentation.The yield of 2 ATP molecules is enough to keep muscles contracting for a short period of time when oxygen is scarce. Through the fermentation process NAD+ is regenerated as pyruvate is broken down to CO2 and ethanol. This allows the anaerobic production of 2 ATP molecules. (Reece et al. 2012). In essence, keeping cells alive that may otherwise die without the energy to provide for muscle contractions of the heart.LITERATURE CITED: Reece, Taylor, Simon, Dickey, and Campbell. , Biology: concepts & connections. Pearson Benjamin Cummings, San Francisco, CA. Pgs. 100-101 Hyde, A. October 31, 2012

Lifting the Coporate Veil

LIFTING THE CORPORATE VEIL (i) Introduction (ii) Principles of Corporate Personality (iii)Statutory Exceptions (iv)Common Law and the Mere Facade Test (v) Agency and Groups (vi)Conclusions INTRODUCTION 1. When a creditor discovers that a debtor company is insolvent, the creditor will frequently want to recover the debt from a shareholder, director or associate of the insolvent company. There exist various statutory and common law mechanisms by which the corporate veil can be lifted and liability imposed on individuals or other companies.This lecture sets outs and discusses those mechanisms in the light of recent authorities and of the Companies Act 2006. PRINCIPLES OF CORPORATE PERSONALITY 2. One of the fundamental principles of company law is that a company has personality that is distinct from that of its shareholders. This rule was laid down by the House of Lords in Salomon v. Salomon & Co1, in which it was held that even if one individual held almost all the shares and debentures in a company, and if the remaining shares were held on trust for him, the company is not to be regarded as a mere shadow of that individual.Lord MacNaughten stated2: â€Å"The company is at law a different person altogether from the subscribers to the Memorandum and, although it may be that after incorporation the business is precisely the same as it was before, and the same persons are managers, and the 1 [1897] A. C. 22 2 Ibid, at p. 51 2 same hands receive the profits, the company is not in law the agent of the subscribers or the trustee for them. Nor are subscribers as members liable, in any shape or form, except to the extent and in the manner provided by theAct3. † The rule in Salomon lies at the heart of corporate personality, and is the principal difference between companies and partnerships. However, there are situations in which the courts look beyond that personality to the members or directors of the company: in doing so they are said to lift or pierce the corpor ate veil. There is no single basis on which the veil may be lifted, rather the cases fall into several loose categories, which are examined below. STATUTORY EXCEPTIONS 3.There are certain statutory exceptions to the rule in Salomon which involve a director being made liable for debts of the company because of breach of the companies or insolvency legislation. Eg: (a) Failure to obtain a trading certificate 4. Where a public company fails to obtain a trading certificate in addition to its certificate of incorporation before trading, the directors will be liable to the other parties in any transactions entered into by the company to indemnify them against any loss or damage suffered as a result of the company’s failure to comply with its obligations.This provision Companies Act 1985, s. 117(8) has been retained in the 2006 Act. See CA2006 s767(3). (b) Failure to use Company’s name 5. Section 349(4) of the CA 1985 provided that if an officer of a company or a person actin g on its behalf signs a bill of exchange, cheque or similar instrument on behalf of the company, in which the company’s name is not mentioned4, that person will be personally liable to the holder of the instrument in question for the amount of it (unless it is duly 3 i. e. Companies Act 1862 4 Thus contravening s. 349 (1)(c) of CA 1985 3 aid by the company). However, although CA2006 s. 84 imposes criminal penalties for failure to use the company name on relevant documents, there is currently no equivalent provision in the 2006 Act imposing such a personal liability. (c) Disqualified Directors 6. Under s. 15 of the Company Directors Disqualification Act 1986, if a person who has been disqualified from being a director of, or involved in the management of a company acts in contravention of his disqualification he will be liable for all those debts of the company which were incurred when he was so acting.The same applies to a person who knowingly acts on the instructions of a di squalified person or an undischarged bankrupt. (d) Just and Equitable Winding Up 7. Under s. 122(1)(g) of the Insolvency Act 1986 a petition may be presented to wind up a company on the grounds that it would be just and equitable to do so. This may involve lifting the veil of incorporation, for example to examine the basis on which the company was formed5. (e) Fraudulent Trading 8.Section 213 of the Insolvency Act 1986 deals with fraudulent trading. Under that section, if it appears to the court that â€Å"any business of the company has been carried on with intent to defraud creditors of the company or of any other person, or for any fraudulent purpose†, it may order that â€Å"any persons who were knowingly parties to the carrying on of the business in the manner above-mentioned are to be liable to make contributions (if any) to the company’s assets as the court thinks proper†. (f) Wrongful Trading 9.Section 214 of the Insolvency Act 1986 concerns wrongful tra ding, and enables the court to make a declaration, when a company has become gone into insolvent liquidation, that a former director is liable to make a contribution to the company’s assets. Such a declaration can be made where the director in question knew or ought to have concluded, 5 E. g. Ebrahimi v. Westbourne Galleries [1973] AC 360. 4 at some point before the commencement of the company’s liquidation, that there was no reasonable prospect that the company would avoid going into insolvent litigation. By s. 214(7), the provisions of s. 214 also apply to hadow directors. (g) Phoenix Companies 10. The Insolvency Act 1986 also allows the court to lift the corporate veil in cases of socalled â€Å"Phoenix Companies†, in which a new company is created with the same or a similar name to an insolvent company. S. 216 of the Act makes it an offence for anyone who was a director of the insolvent company during the 12 months before liquidation to be associated with a company with the same name as the insolvent company or a name so similar as to suggest an association6. S. 217 provides that where a person is involved in the management of a company in contravention of s. 16, or where he acts, or is willing to act, on instructions given by a person whom he knows to be in contravention of that section, he is himself jointly and severally liable with the company for all the relevant debts of that company. (h) Unfair Prejudice 11. The Courts’ powers under s. 459 of the 1985 Act (the provisions of which are duplicated in s. 994 of the 2006 Act) apply where â€Å"the company’s affairs are being or have been conducted in a manner which is unfairly prejudicial to the interests of its members generally or of some part of its members (including at least himself). The general proposition that the conduct of a parent company in control of a subsidiary can be relevant where a s. 459 petition is presented by shareholders of a subsidiary is unsurp rising7. It has also been held by the Court of Appeal8 that directors’ unfairly prejudicial conduct of a subsidiary may be actionable by shareholders of the parent under s. 459 if the parent and subsidiary have directors in common. (i) Third Party Costs Orders 6 Unless that person is given leave by the court so to act: s. 216 (3) 7 see Nicholas v Soundcraft [1993] BCLC 360 Citybranch Ltd v Rackind [2004] EWCA Civ 815 5 12. The court has jurisdiction to make a costs order against a party to the proceedings in favour of a non-party (including the directors or shareholders of a litigant company) by virtue of s. 51 Supreme Court Act 1981 and CPR 48. 2. This has recently been applied by the Court of Appeal in the case of Alan Phillips Associates Ltd v Terence Edward Dowling9. A contract was accepted by a company on headed paper almost identical to that of a business run by Mr Phillips prior to incorporation.Mr Phillips wrongly issued proceedings in his own name and the company was then substituted as Claimant. The company’s claim was dismissed and a third party costs order was made against Mr Phillips. 13. More typical circumstances for a third party costs order arose in Goodwood Recoveries Ltd v Breen10 which held that where a non-party director could be described as the â€Å"real party† seeking his own benefit and controlling and/or funding the litigation, then even where he had acted in good faith or without any impropriety justice might demand that he be liable in costs. 4. Similarly in CIBC Mellon Trust Co v Stolzenberg11 when the court held that there was no reason in principle why, if a shareholder (not being a director or other person duly authorised, appointed and legally obliged to act in the best interests of the company) funded, controlled and directed litigation by the company in order to promote or protect his own financial interest, the court should not make a costs order against him. COMMON LAW AND THE MERE FACADE TEST Engine o f Fraud 15.It has long been established that the Courts will not allow the Salomon principle to be used as an engine of fraud, or to avoid pre existing legal obligations. Probably the bestknown example of this rule is Gilford Motor Company Ltd v. Horne12, in which the Defendant had been managing director of a the Claimant company, and had entered into a 9 [2007] EWCA Civ 64 10 [2005] EWCA Civ 414 11 [2005] EWCA Civ 628 12 [1933] Ch. 935 6 covenant not to solicit customers from his employers when he ceased to be employed by them.On leaving the company’s employment, Horne formed a company to carry on a competing business, the shares in which were held by his wife and a friend, and he thereby solicited the Claimant’s customers. The Court of Appeal held that this company was a mere facade or sham to cloak his breach, and granted an injunction to enforce the covenant against both Horne and the company. 16. Similarly, in Jones v. Lipman13 the Defendant had entered into a con tract to sell property, but then sought to avoid the sale by transferring the property to a company which he controlled.Russell J held that specific performance could be ordered against the company, which he described as â€Å"the creature of the First Defendant, a device and a sham, a mask which he holds before his face in an attempt to avoid recognition by the eye of equity†14. 17. A recent example of the application of the principle is Kensington International Ltd v Congo15. The Claimant had obtained various judgments against the Republic of Congo which it sought to enforce by way of third party debt order against money payable to a company called â€Å"Sphynx† who had sold a cargo of oil.Sphynx had bought the oil from Africa Oil. Africa Oil had bought the oil from the Congolese state owned oil company (â€Å"SNPC†). Sphynx and Africa Oil were both controlled by the president and director general of SNPC. The court held that the various transactions and compa ny structures were a sham or facade and had no legal substance, and were set up with a view to defeating existing claims of creditors against the Congo. SNPC and Sphynx were simply part of the Congolese state and had no existence separate from the state.It was not necessary for there to be a divestment of assets at an undervalue to justify the court piercing the corporate veil in relation to the particular transactions. 13 [1962] 1 WLR 832 14 ibid, p. 836 15 [2005] EWHC 2684 (Comm) 7 18. It should be noted that the mere fact that there is fraudulent activity does not necessarily justify the piercing of the corporate veil. In Dadourian Group v Simms16 individuals who had fraudulently misrepresented that one of them was a mere intermediary when in fact he was a co-owner and ontroller of a contracting company was liable for deceit but the veil was not lifted so the individuals were not found liable for the company’s breach of contract to buy equipment. In this case there was no conspiracy to injure the Claimant and there had been a genuine intention that the company would buy the equipment. The now defunct â€Å"Interests of Justice Test† 19. In Creasey v. Breachwood Motors Ltd17 the facts were slightly different from those of Gilford v. Horne and Jones v. Lipman.Creasey had been the manager of a garage owned by Breachwood Welwyn Ltd (â€Å"Welwyn†), but was dismissed from his post and intended to sue for wrongful dismissal. In anticipation of his claim, and wanting to avoid having to pay him damages, the proprietors of Welwyn formed another company, named Breachwood Motors Ltd (â€Å"Motors†), and transferred the entire business of the old company to it. Creasey obtained judgment in default against Welwyn, which was then struck off of the register of companies. Creasey obtained an order substituting Motors as defendants, against which Motors appealed. Richard Southwell Q.C. , sitting as a judge of the Queen’s Bench Division, he ld that Motors could be substituted as defendants, and that the veil could be lifted because Welwyn’s assets had been deliberately transferred to Motors in full knowledge of Creasey’s claim18. Richard Southwell Q. C. specifically decided that it was right to allow the veil to be lifted as regards Motors, rather than force Creasey to apply to have Welwyn restored to the register and apply for an order that its assets be restored to it under s. 423 of the Insolvency Act 1986 (an alternative which the judge described as a â€Å"procedural minefield†). 0. In Ord & Anor v. Belhaven Pubs Ltd19 the Court of Appeal has however decided that the decision in Creasey was wrong. In Ord the defendant company had made various 16 [2006] EWHC 2973 (Ch) 17 [1992] BCC 638 18 Ibid, p. 648 B 19 [1998] BCC 607 8 misrepresentations to the claimant. By the time these came to light, the company had all but ceased trading, and had negligible assets. The claimant sought to substitute the defendant company’s holding company, and the judge at first instance followed Creasey and allowed the substitution.The Court of Appeal decided that this was incorrect, as the original company had not been a mere facade for the holding company, nor vice versa. Unlike the new company in Creasey, neither company had not been created as a sham to avoid some liability, there had been no element of asset stripping and so the veil should not be lifted. Hobhouse LJ, giving the judgment of the court, stated: â€Å"There may have been elements in that case [i. e. Creasey] of asset stripping. I do not so read the report of [Richard Southwell QC’s] judgment†¦ But it seems to me to be inescapable that the case in Creasey v.Breachwood as it appears to the court cannot be sustained. It represents a wrong adoption of the principle of piercing the corporate veil and an issue of the power granted by the rules to substitute one party for the other following death or succession. The refore in my judgment the case of Creasey v. Breachwood should no longer be treated as authoritative. †20 The Current State of the Law 21. The courts are now increasingly reluctant to lift the veil in the absence of a sham. In particular, it is clear that the veil will not be lifted simply because it would be in the interests of justice.In Adams v. Cape Industries plc21 the Court of Appeal was unequivocal on this point. Slade LJ said22: â€Å"Save in cases which turn on the wording of particular statutes or contracts, the court is not free to disregard the principle of Salomon v. Salomon & Co Ltd [1897] AC 22 merely because it considers that justice so requires. Our law, for better or worse, recognises the creation of subsidiary companies, which though in one sense the creatures of their parent companies, will nevertheless under the 20 Ibid, p. 616 B 1 [1990] Ch 433 9 general law fall to be treated as separate entities with all the rights and liabilities which would normally attach to separate legal entities. † 22. That the courts are now less willing to lift the corporate veil than was once the case is also indicated by the judgment of the House of Lords in Williams v. Natural Life Health Foods Ltd23. The defendant company was effectively run by one man, a Mr Mistlin, and had given negligent advice to the claimant regarding the profitability of a franchise.On the company being wound up the claimant joined Mr Mistlin as a defendant on the basis that he had assumed personal responsibility. The House of Lords unanimously rejected the Court of Appeal’s finding that Mr Mistlin had assumed responsibility to the Claimant, holding that in order for a director to be personally liable for negligent advice given by the company, it had to be shown both that the director had assumed personal responsibility for that advice and that the claimant had reasonably relied on that assumption of responsibility.As there had been no personal dealings between Mr M istlin and the claimant, these tests were not met, and the corporate veil should remain intact24. 23. A court will also be justified in disregarding a company’s personality so as to prevent the corporate form being used as a medium through which to lawfully carry out an activity which would otherwise be a wrongdoing. In Trustor AB v.Smallbone25 the defendant Smallbone had effected the payment of considerable sums of money from Trustor AB, a company of which he was managing director, to a company called Introcom, which he controlled. Sir Andrew Morritt V-C found that Introcom was simply a vehicle for receiving the money, and that the payments were made in breach of Smallbone’s duty to Trustor. Summary judgment was ordered against Smallbone and Introcom. 24. What then is the law following the decisions in Ord and Williams?Neither case, of course, involved findings that the relevant company had been a facade. Ord should not be 22 Ibid p. 536. 23 [1998] 2 All ER 577 24 The Court of Appeal has held that the principles identified by the House of Lords in Williams are equally applicable to torts other than negligence, although this decision has been criticised: see Standard Chartered Bank v. Pakistan National Shipping Corp. (No 2) [2000] 1 Lloyd’s Rep 218 25 [2001] 1 WLR 1177 10 thought to prevent the veil being lifted in cases where there is a sham or facade.Subsequent authorities, as well as the House of Lords decisions prior to Ord26, show that the law is still that the courts will be willing to lift the veil in cases where there is a sham and that principle is still at the heart of the test to be applied. AGENCY AND GROUPS 25. Although Salomon made it clear that a company is not automatically the agent of its shareholders, in exceptional cases such a relationship can exist, and it will be a question of fact whether there is a relationship of agency in any particular case, so that it is appropriate to pierce the veil.Questions of agency most o ften arise in the context of associated or group companies, and so the two areas are here considered together. Statute 26. Companies Act 1985 ss. 227-231 (and CA 2006 s. 399 et seq) provide that groups of companies must prepare group accounts, which must comprise consolidated balance sheets and profit and loss accounts for the parent company and its subsidiary undertakings.The aim of the accounts is to give a true and fair picture of the state of the undertakings included in the consolidation as a whole, which are treated for the purposes of the accounts as an economic unit. The process naturally requires that the corporate veil be lifted in order to identify which companies form the group. The courts are also sometimes willing to treat a group of companies as a unit for other purposes, and have tended to justify the decision to pierce the veil by analogy with the legislation, or by finding that one group company was the agent of another.Case Law 27. The development of the courtsâ⠂¬â„¢ attitude to agency in a company context has tended not to produce clear rules, perhaps until recently, and so the historical case law is summarised below. The principles leading to a finding of agency were considered by Atkinson J in 26 E. g. Woolfson v. Strathclyde Regional Council [1978] SLT 159, in which Lord Keith of Kinkel stated that it was appropriate to lift the veil â€Å"only where the special circumstances exist indicating that [the company] is a mere facade concealing the true facts†. 1 Smith, Stone & Knight Ltd v. Birmingham Corporation27, in the context of whether a subsidiary company was the agent of its holding company. That was a case where agency was established and the veil lifted – the parent company had full and exclusive access to the subsidiary’s books, the subsidiary had no employees other than a manager, it occupied the parent’s premises for no consideration and the only evidence of its purportedly independent existence was its name on the stationery.Atkinson J said that the question of whether a company was carrying on its own business or its parent’s was a question of fact, and identified six questions which he considered determinative: (i) Were the profits of the subsidiary those of the parent company? (ii) Were the persons conducting the business of the subsidiary appointed by the parent company? (iii) Was the parent company the â€Å"head and brains† of the venture? (iv) Did the parent company govern the venture? v) Were the profits made by the subsidiary company made by the skill and direction of the parent company? (vi) Was the parent company in effective and constant control of the subsidiary? These questions, while still relevant, can no longer be viewed as a complete statement of the law. As will be discussed below, the trend of the authorities has been away from findings of agency unless particular circumstances dictate that such a finding should be made. 28. It is relevant to consider the purpose for which the relevant company structure was created. In Re F. G. Films) Ltd28 an American holding company set up a British subsidiary to produce a film, in order that it might be classified as a British film. The Board of Trade refused to register it as such, and the matter came to court. It was held that the British company’s participation in the making of the film was so small as to be practically negligible, and that it had been brought into existence for the sole purpose of being put forward as having made the film, and for thus enabling it to qualify as a British film, and that therefore there was a relationship of agency. 2 29. In Littlewoods Mail Order Stores Ltd v. McGregor29 Lord Denning warned that the Salomon doctrine had to be carefully watched, and said that Parliament had shown the way as regards the scrutiny of groups of companies, and that the courts should follow suit. 30. An influential case in this area was DHN Food Distributors Ltd v. Tower Hamlets London Borough Council30, which concerned compulsory purchase: one company in the group owned the freehold of premises, from which another group company traded and which it occupied as bare licensee.The Court of Appeal stressed the significance of the existence of a â€Å"single economic unit† and recognised the group as a single entity, allowing it to recover compensation, but the exact reasons behind the decision are unclear, as the members of the court were each apparently influenced by different factors. Lord Denning MR noted that the subsidiaries were wholly owned, Shaw LJ pointed out that the companies had common directors, shareholdings and interests, and Goff LJ referred to ownership and the fact that the companies had no business operations outside the group.Goff LJ also stated that not all groups would be treated in this way, and there have been cases since DHN Food Distributors in which wholly owned subsidiaries have not been identified as a unit wit h their holding companies31. 31. To further confuse the position, DHN Food Distributors was not followed by the House of Lords in the Scottish appeal of Woolfson v. Strathclyde Regional Council32, and also runs counter to many decisions of courts in Australia and New Zealand. In Industrial Equity Ltd v.Blackburn33 the High Court of Australia said that the group accounts legislation did not operate to deny the separate legal personality of the company. In Re Securitibank Ltd (No. 2)34 the New Zealand Court of Appeal considered the decision in Littlewoods Mail Order Stores and thought that the approach in that case was the wrong way around– the court considered that the Salomon principal should be the starting point 13 for any examination of a group of companies, and any departure from it should be considered carefully.In the New South Wales case of Pioneer Concrete Services v. Yelnah Pty Ltd35 Young J considered the authorities and held that the veil should only be lifted wher e there was in law or in fact a partnership between the companies, or where there was a sham or facade36. 32. The English position was again considered by the Court of Appeal in Adams v. Cape Industries plc37, in which the Claimants with default judgments obtained in Texas against a company sought to enforce those judgments against an its ultimate holding company in the United Kingdom.The Court of Appeal held that although a parent company exercised supervision and control over its subsidiary in a foreign country, the parent company was not present in that country, and did not submit to that jurisdiction, by a subsidiary which did business in its own right. In the passage quoted above, Slade LJ stated that the Salomon principle will not be disregarded simply because justice so requires, and that subsidiary companies should be considered as individuals unless special circumstances dictated otherwise.Members of a corporate group were perfectly entitled to use the corporate structure e ven if the consequence was that only lowly capitalised subsidiaries were exposed to potentially harmful asbestos claims. 33. It is suggested, therefore, that the present position is that the courts are likely to be unwilling to lift the veil as against groups of companies in the absence of some agreement of agency, and that Littlewoods Mail Order Stores and DHN Food Distributors cannot any longer be considered authoritative. CONCLUSIONS â€Å"Genuine Ultimate Purpose†- An alternative test? 4. Some shams or facades may be obvious, but many others will not. The courts are reluctant to provide precise guidelines so as to define what constitutes a sham preferring the flexibility of a case by case approach. Useful tests to be employed when trying to identify a sham are: * Are the relevant entities in common ownership? * Are the relevant entities in common control? * Was the company structure was put in place before or after a particular liability (or serious risk) arose, and if th e latter then to what extent was he liability or risk a motivating factor for those who set up the structure? * Was the company structure put in place in an attempt to allow an activity which would be unlawful if carried out personally? 35. It has been suggested by some commentators38 that a â€Å"genuine ultimate purpose† test should replace the traditional established sham or facade test. However, this novel approach may throw up as many problems as the traditional test.Further, it seems to strike at the heart of the concept of the limited liability company since a primary (and often sole) purpose of incorporation is to reduce personal exposure to trade creditors, a motive that has been held to be acceptable since the concept of the limited company first became part of the legislative framework. Parliament, when passing the Companies Act 2006, had ample opportunity to conduct a wholesale revision of this principle but deliberately left the topic well alone. There currently appears to be little judicial enthusiasm for such revision either. DOV OHRENSTEIN RADCLIFFE CHAMBERS LINCOLN’S INN

Conflict between Georgia and Russia about republics of South Ossetia Essay

Conflict between Georgia and Russia about republics of South Ossetia and Abkhazia (2008) - Essay Example Political explanations of the conflict usually revolve around communism while ethnicity is viewed as a cause which was naturally gratified by widespread disparities and as a natural culmination of communist repression. Moreover, it could also be argued that ethnicity as an underlying cause of the conflict is justifiable or understandable considering the existence of such groups in large numbers. Heterogeneity is viewed by some as a driving force behind widespread dissatisfaction among the public that fuelled the desire to demand a separate state. The premises that gave rise to the ethnic and cultural differences can further be attributed to the Soviet political system which rather than diffusing the causes of the conflict, in fact, ended up fuelling it further. Research suggests that historically, ethnic conflicts have lasted longer and was more frequent as compared to conflicts or wars caused due to other reasons. Furthermore, it is also established through research, which ethnically motivated conflicts are rarely solved through peaceful negotiations and usually needs to be resolved through use of military power ending in victory of either side (King 1997, p.13)1. However, the explanations to the Georgian South Ossetian conflict cannot be restricted to any one particular point of view such as ethnicity or suppression during the Soviet Union. It is in fact a result of amalgamation of various complex phenomena. The 1989 Census estimated the population of South Ossetia as 66.61% Ossetians, 29.44% Georgians and the remaining 4% as a combination of Russians, Jews and Armenians. The Ossetians accounted for 74% of the population in Tskhinvali – the administrative state of South Ossetia while the rest of the population comprised of Georgians and other groups of miscellaneous ethnicities. However, the composition of the population underwent drastic change since the onset of the conflict which led to mass migration towards the Northern Ossetian regions as

The Impact of Information Technology on Photojournalism Essay

The Impact of Information Technology on Photojournalism - Essay Example Ethical values must be incorporated to information technology to make the photos more realistic. Identification of ethical issues of Impact of Information Technology on Photojournalism. Kenny Irby stated that photo journalism is the craft of employing photographic storytelling to document life (Quinn 2005). Jeremy Iggers states â€Å"Journalism's conversation about ethics has not changed all that much since the 1920s, but in the past decade, journalism itself has changed dramatically. The Cultural Revolution currently underway in America's newsrooms is making journalism's ethical conversation increasingly irrelevant (p. 75)†. A visiting French journalist toured the United States in the 1980s and commented that the wide variance between ethics talk and the practice of journalism led him to suspect that "ethics was implemented partly as a remedial procedure, partly as a public relations act, and partly as a way of escape goating the journalists, transferring onto the journalists’ all the blame for the media's negative actions. Generally, during the current century, the formal requirements for a meaningful discussion about the delicate topic of ethics hav e been set into motion. In theory, the journalists were professionals with a high degree of self- autonomy, and the newspaper had been formally pledged implement a job of public service. What may be ethically influential about the most recent changes in the print industry is that these entities of autonomy and accountability are systematically being disbanded. The changes incorporate the introduction of new technology that lessens the level of skill needed of the company press workers. Nicholas Burbules (2000) theorized â€Å"From recent popular films such as ‘The Net’ or ‘Enemy of the State,’ to countless news features in the media, there is a growing sense of awareness of the vast implications of digital technologies for traditional assumptions about privacy. The volume of information that is instantly recorded whenever one uses a credit card, travels the Internet, visits a hospital or pharmacy, files a tax return, rents a film on video tape, and so onâ €”information that can be accessed by authorized and unauthorized persons alike—has changed the speed and ease with which much of one's personal life and activities (including the circumstances of one's very body) can be recorded and observed by others (p. 121)†. The photo journalist has the ethical responsibility to deliver the facts, not the lies. Philip Seib (Seib, 1994) observes â€Å"Political journalism matters. That's not just a reporter's ego speaking. It's a hard fact about how the political system works. Politicians' words and deeds earn few votes unless the public knows about them. Issues may seem obscure and unimportant unless news stories explain their significance. And, from another perspective, candidates can learn much about the electorate by monitoring what news organizations report, especially local media (p. 1)†. Normally, during the election season, many candidates are bound to depend on news coverage to win the discriminating residentsâ⠂¬â„¢ votes. More than 100 million Americans visit the polls during the seasonal presidential election. In addition, many bus tours and whistle-stop train trips have their quaint appeal, and, as was the case for Bill Clinton in 1992, this kind of campaigning can enter into a mutually beneficial bond with voters and set the tone for a new government candidate. However, in-person campaigning will not get a candidate in touch with the massive number of voters the political figure wants in order win the elusive senate,

Why Women Should Avoid Abortion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 4

Why Women Should Avoid Abortion - Essay Example Reasons against abortion are broad and vary from religious values, human values, as well as the values associated with conscience. Issues related to primary human values appear at the top of reasons why women should not get abortion. It is crucial for women to put into perspective the unborn babies. It is definite that irrespective of the circumstance under which a woman conceived, the unborn child was not responsible in any way (Waxman, 2009, 08). It is necessary to allow the unborn babies enjoy the right of living and growing into a person just as the biological father and mother lived to the level of interacting to bring the child to life. Women in this case, ought to reduce their egoistic elements towards the unborn and be more humanitarian to them as well. Undoubtedly, the unborn kid does not have any clue on how and why it is at the exact place. It is not good to terminate a life without giving it a chance to live fully. Indeed, there are many other mechanisms of resolving related problems. Along with this line of thought, procuring abortion compounds a tragedy. It is understandable that the conditions which a woman conceives are tragic such as a rape and incest. Other occasions include diagnosing the pregnant mother with a health defect that could also include the pregnancy putting the health of the expectant mother at risk. Nonetheless, it is never justified to respond to one tragedy with another one. A critical question to the proponents of abortion is, how does killing a child eradicate rape incidences? If the unborn in the womb of mother is ill, do we cure him by taking his life? In general, the society cannot avoid the all issues arising from health by denying the existence of human beings. It is only recommended that the society puts adequate measures in place to care for raped women compassionately.   Compassionate care does not in any way include ending the existence of the child in the womb. Care includes among other actions extending real facts to parents experiencing prenatal complications and directing them to other women wit h experiences that remain helpful to their colleagues.  

Social conflicts for abortion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Social conflicts for abortion - Essay Example On the basis of judgement, the fetus is a human life, not a potential person. Termination of this life, even before it has left the womb, is viewed as essentially an act of murder. In abortion, the infant is evidently detached in content and being than the mother. It is being carried by the mother for nine months. Being morally upright individuals, we are supposed to look after the helpless, together with the unborn human being as it develops and matures. The mother's preference is merely what difficulty she needs to run away from. Corollary to the discussion on family planning is the sensitive issue on abortion. The First World of the G-7 or Group of Highly Industrialized Countries favors the liberal approach to dehumanize the world through the more fatal solution of abortion. Any reasons to advance to justify such act of fetus killing could not deodorize the abominations created by the killing of the unborn. The unborn has nothing to do with the problems of the would-be parents for he is just but a necessary feature in a husband-wife relationship. We acquire way too much credit, credit that God deserves. We believe that we created life. God provided us bodies gifted of procreating with extraordinarily intricate and precise hormonal equilibrium and physiologic transformations that permit the body to function. It is astonishing, when we wi... Several minutes of sex and some time developing in a uterus is not 'creating' a child. If I would like to bake a cake, it needs time and cautious action and thought to accomplish this. An infant is much more complicated. We cannot construct all required DNA; man cannot obtain the considered necessary DNA and construct life under the most controlled circumstances. Man still has not made any kind of life, even the most simple one-cell kind. We can invent scientific innovations but we cannot make life. God does this routinely. We must give Him the credit. Life begins at conception. Hence, a fetus at any stage of its development is a human being, with the same right to life as any other human being. Thus, to take life of a fetus by abortion is the same as taking the life of an adult without due process of law. That is, fetuses are not tried for a crime or sentenced to death penalty for a crime. They are simply put to death summarily. That is plain murder. Each fetus has an immortal soul from the moment of its conception and that any soul destroyed before it is baptized is eternally lost to salvation. Human bodies do not belong to the people who occupy them or to the parents who beget them, and they certainly do not belong to society. Bodies belong to God, and God alone has the right to decide what happens to them. It best to believe that we should stand by these arguments deeply that the efforts to outlaw abortions are dedicated to the most sacred and important cause in politics: The preservation of human beings and their immortal souls from murder and eternal damnation. I suppose the motive a person who is pro-abortion to be legal is, simply put, selfishness. The abortion occurs as the mother (maybe under other's pressure)

Space Elevator Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Space Elevator - Research Proposal Example It is a fixed structure as opposed to a vehicle which will be fuel hungry and will have limited capacity of locomotion between the body and the space. A typical space elevator will be a cable like structure extending from the earth's surface into the outer space. It's center of mass will coincide with the Geostationary Earth Orbit, which is at an altitude of 35,786 km. Locomotion will be facilitated by electromagnetic vehicles which will travel along the cables and will be effective in the movement of people, power and other material. (Audacious & Outrageous: Space Elevators) The Space Elevator has caught the fancy of the scientific fraternity all across the globe. As the race to become the builder of the world's first Space Elevator gets heated up, interesting facts emerge. Japanese scientists have gone on record proclaiming that they were in the process of researching the possibility of building a Space Elevator - capable of transporting cargo as well as tourists, for $ 11 Billion. (Ramadge and Schneider) A region off the west coast of Australia has been identified as an Earth Dock, a location perfect for building the base earth station. "The Indian Ocean off Western Australia has been identified as an ideal location for a 'space elevator'; a thin carbon nano tube connecting a barge to a space station, along which supplies could be carried up. Construction could draw on the WA oil industry's expertise in constructing offshore platforms, as well as its material resources. NASA is currently investigating the feasibility of the project." (qtd. in "Lost in Space' Setting a new direction for Australia's space science and industry sector", 27) The structural specifications of the Space Elevator include several parts like the base station, a cable, climbers, and a counterweight. Base stations, in almost all prototypes, are of two varieties - stationary and mobile. Ships and other vessels can serve as mobile base stations while buildings at higher altitudes can suffice as stationary base stations. Both have their own advantages and disadvantages - while it will be cheaper to operate a stationary base station, a mobile base station can be moved so as to avoid any natural calamity. The cables are perhaps the most important part of the setup. It is necessary to manufacture the cables out of a light yet sturdy material. To be economically viable it will be necessary to produce the material at a mass scale and at a viable price. Research has shown that Carbon nano tubes have the capacity to withstand tensile strength of 63 to 177 GPa and are pretty light, as because of the chemical structure of the carbon atoms ensure that there is free space in between the carbon atoms. Thorough research is necessary to produce carbon nano tubes which are stronger. Another point needs to be kept in mind while constructing a nano tube; it will have to bear its own weight along with the weight of the particles which will be transported. Climbers are basically the vessels which will move along the cable. Climbers again will have to be light and heat resistant - they will encounter atmospheric friction while moving up and down a cable. The most important part is the source of power for the climbers. Options like nuclear power, solar energy, laser power beaming are there to be explored. The counterweight is the object which will hold

Homelessness Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Homelessness - Essay Example There are a number of factors that have contributed towards homelessness in the nation. The National Coalition for the Homeless (NCH), in this regard, identifies two dominant trends that have been responsible for the rise of homelessness: â€Å"a growing shortage of affordable rental housing and a simultaneous increase in poverty† (National Coalition for the Homeless, Why Are People Homeless?). Poverty and homelessness are interrelated as poor people very often are forced to sacrifice their desire for housing in order to meet other basic needs food, clothing and healthcare. Unemployment, unstable employment, low-wages, lack of affordable housing for the poor, excessive waiting lists for public housing, and decline in public assistance are other significant predictors for homelessness (NCH, Why Are People Homeless?). It is worthwhile to review the definition of homelessness and to identify the dominant demographic characteristics of homelessness in the nation. Homeless people are defined as â€Å"individuals who lack a fixed, regular, and adequate nighttime residence;† this definition takes into account people who share the housing of others; people who live in motels or camping grounds; people who are in emergency or transitional shelters; abandoned children who await foster care placement; and migratory children (NCH, Who is Homeless?). Reviewing the demographic characteristics 39% of the homeless population comprised of children below the age of 18 whereas 25% of the homeless were individuals in the age category of 25 to 34 (NCH, Who is Homeless?). Similarly, males were more likely to be homeless than females. However, homeless families with children have considerably increased in the past decade. Regarding the ethnicity of homelessness, African-Americans form the majority of the homel ess population (49%) followed by Caucasian (35%), Hispanic (23%), Native American (2%), and 1% of Asians (NCH, Who is Homeless?). It has also been observed by NCH that

Ending Hunger from the Elderly Population Essay

Ending Hunger from the Elderly Population - Essay Example On the other hand food insecurity is also increasing at an exceptional rate in less developed countries, but its growth rate is also significant in the elderly population of the developed nations including America. According to the survey conducted by (Weill), majority of the elderly population in US, is suffering from the phenomenon of malnutrition and food insecurity. However the solution lies in developing a better food distribution network in US, which should provide the food according to the need of every individual and family irrespective of the race, religion and age. This solution is most logical one, because of the observation registered by (Pothukuchi and Kaufman) that points out a deficency in the food distribution system in US. This unjust distribution system for food is the evidence of racism in the culture of America (Zolberg), where whites have so much food to stock, whereas the people with colored skin are starving from hunger. Another factor which is contributing tow ards growing hunger in elders, is the individualistic culture that motivates people to concentrate on their own lives, therefore, they have little time to care about their elders (Savikko). The growing phenomenon of hunger is also causing the health standards of elders to drop significantly, because the medication, these people are taking require healthy food intake for its effectiveness. Majority of the researchers are emphasizing on the implementation of the policies to raise the degree of self sufficiency through training and development (Bowenng, Clancy and Poppendieck), but this paper is against this viewpoint, because old people are often unable to grasp new skills and their ability to actively work is also become limited due to aging. However, govermental agencies are also fairly active in providing relieve to the elderly population in America, but these activities are proven to be less than effective in uprooting the undirsable situation caused by hunger. On the other hand i f this condition is not countered effectively, then it will encompass other citizens of US in round about five years, because right now, US agricultural sector is producing food that is more than its need, but the population growth will cause severe food shortage in US food market, during coming years. In this situation Americans will have to import food items from other countries, which will result in rise in the prices of food items in the local market. This will, therefore worsen the situation for elderly population with minimum income level. It is evident, from the above discussion that, US ought to plan for the demand and supply situation concerning food in the future, otherwise the shortage of food will increase and encompass other members of the population along with elders. The methods of economical health services along with the less expensive and consistent food supply for elders in the society, could be an effective measure for counteracting the developing phenomenon of h unger and food insecurity. Conclusion In the light of a thoroughly conducted field survey, 80% of the food deprived population is constituted by African American elderly males in the shiny city of New York (Bowenng, Clancy, & Poppendieck, 1991). This observation compelled this effort to notify that, racism is still present in the very roots of the American Society,

Response to the Critical Thinking Exercise Research Paper

Response to the Critical Thinking Exercise - Research Paper Example Though no previous research on these specific methods is available, wound management theories are diverse and available to nurses through Google search, and databases such as PubMed, in deciding which method to use (McManus, 2007, p.9). For example, in chronic wounds some types of methods such as moist wound healing might not work due to the recurrence of necrotic tissues (McManus, 2007, p.10). Thus, literature review on known methods can serve to design the methodology for testing the research question whether some new methods are more efficient than other methods. Moreover, quantifiable study design, samples and data collection techniques can be borrowed from the already existent body of knowledge. Though a nurse might be faced with absence of previous research on a method that arose from nurse’s experience and observations, previous theories can be used to design one’s own experiment and thus scientifically evaluate the efficiency of these

The prices of college Essay Example for Free

The prices of college Essay The prices of college tuition have increased yearly, and not much of an effort is put forth to try to lower the costs. For example, colleges in the state of Pennsylvania have a high tuition. Moravian College’s tuition is about $32,931, and after receipt of grants and scholarships for one year it will be $22,900. East Stroudsburg University’s tuition is about $6,240, and after receipt of grants and scholarships for one year it will be $12,500. I can barely afford Community College, and I know for a fact I wouldn’t be able to afford any of these colleges or universities either. In this essay, I will explain through facts and opinions, why the cost of college tuition should be lowered. Many people decide to start off first in Community Colleges after they leave high school because it’s cheaper. Even though, some may have the money to move on to the college or university that they dreamed about attending, or to the exact college or university that acquire the major they want to complete. Some don’t start college after high school because they’re working on saving up enough money to attend one. Through these different experiences, I’ve realized why the cost of college tuition should be lowered. By lowering the prices of college tuition, many people can actually go to a certain college or university that contains the major they want. Others can keep up with their studies and actually have a bright future ahead of them. Most people can even study and work hard to be able to have a wealthy job and not even have to worry about this problem with costly colleges. Personally, I am going through issues with my college tuition. I try to pay off my college tuition with the help of my seasonal job at Dorney Park, and my parents, and the financial aid I received as well. My main problem is that even with all the help I get, I still end up paying a big amount of money for my college tuition at Northampton Community College. According to a website I recently found, it showed what the total annual cost of the school. The website also says that the total annual cost is without grants and scholarship. Paying off the cost can be hard for most people, especially some who just got out of college and it’s hard Moravian’s total annual cost comes out to be in $44,069, and that is also without adding any grants, loans, or scholarships. Also, East Stroudsburg’s total annual cost comes out to be in $15,299, and again that is without adding any grants, loans, or scholarships. Even in where I am at, Northampton Community College, there total annual cost comes out to be in $14,684, but I don’t commute at home so it’s a little less then that price, still there is barely a difference. These prices of college tuitions have been skyrocketing, and will keep going higher if no change is made. In conclusion, the cost of college tuitions has to go down, because many people in the world today are becoming poor, or are in financial debt, or in the recession because of these outlandish prices. Also, a big problem is the dreams of many people around the world to move on in life, and go forth to achieve goals are being traumatically ruined because of the prices of college tuition. I am one to say, college is getting way to pricy, and if these prices keep going up more, then my dreams would go down more of having the job I always wanted, having enough money to support my family and children in the future, and about even having a future at all. The government already takes enough money from every individual through taxes, we need a financial change, we need college to be cheaper, and we need it now! http://www.dailyfinance.com/2010/08/30/smartest-students-community-colleges/ http://money.usnews.com/money/blogs/my-money/2012/05/30/5-reasons-community-colleges-make-sense-right-now

Net present value Essay Example for Free

Net present value Essay This essay will discuss the net present value (NPV), payback period (PBP) and internal rate of return (IRR) approaches for a project evaluation. It is often said that NPV is the best approach investment appraisal, which I why I will compare the strengths and weaknesses of NPV as well as the two others to se if the statement is actually true. Introduction To start of, the essay will attempt to explain the theoretical rationale of the net present value approach to investment appraisal as well as its strengths and weaknesses. From there, introduce the payback period method and then internal rate of return approach, as well as to consider their strengths and weaknesses. After outlining and explaining the three different approaches, it will finish up with comparing the different three and in a conclusion. NPV Net present value or NPV is an approach used to determine the value of an investment today (present) compared to the value of the investment in the future after taking the inflation and return into account. In simpler words, it compares the value of 1 pound today with the same pound in the future. Net present value is used in capital budgeting to analyze the profitability of an investment. It is usually calculated using tables and spreadsheets such as Microsoft Excel, but the main formula used to calculate net present value looks like this: Where C0 = Cash outflow at time t=0 Ct = Cash inflow at time t r = The discount rate As Ross (2013) states in his book, a project should be accepted if the NPV is greater than zero and rejected if it is less than zero. This is known as the NPV rule. However, if the NPV is equal to zero, the manager of the company has to decide whether to accept or reject depending on several factors, such as there might be a better investment to be made elsewhere that might produce higher revenue. It will be a question of opportunity cost. The whole point of the rule is that if a firm accepts an investment with positive net present value, it will benefit the shareholders, as the value of the firm will increase (considering no other circumstances) by the amount of the NPV. This is called additivity, which means that the value of the firm is simply the value of the different divisions, projects, or other entities within the firm. Alexander (2000) states that any financial asset with an NPV greater than zero is referred to as underpriced, while any financial asset with an NPV less than zero is said to be overprices. A firm or company must always consider is the concept of ‘time value of money’ (TVM). TMV means that if ? 1 is invested today, say for instance in a bank or a fund, with an interest rate of 5 per cent per annum, in one year it will be ? 1. 05 because the bank compensates the investors for borrowing their money. The same would be if you reverse the equation. ?1 in a year with the same interest rate of 5 per cent equals ? 0. 9524 today (Weetman, 2010). The reason for discounting future cash flows according to Marney (2011) are because of three factors; inflation, risk and time impatience. In all countries there is some level of inflation that needs to be accounted for. It can lead to both higher and lower purchasing power of money. Risk is very hard du make accurate predictions for in the far future, and after the credit crunch of 2007-2008, very few dare to make them on variables like inflation and interest rates. Lastly is the factor of time impatience. Since mankind is born with some level of greed, people prefer money now rather than later. This can easily be reflected by the use of credit cards and loans in general. And as long as people want to lend and borrow, there is money to be made for lenders, as incentives are required with the gratification in the form of interest. The main advantage with the net present value technique according to Ross (2013) is that is uses cash flows, it includes all the cash flows of the project and that it rightly discounts the cash flows properly. The positive aspect of it using cash flows is that it determines when the project will earn its incomes, how soon they will come as well as how sizable they are going to be. What is meant when he states that it uses all the cash flows is that it acknowledges every single cash flow, regardless of the date or the size. The advantage for the shareholders of the firm is that it shows how much they can expect to get back from an investment as it takes into account the riskiness of the project and doesn’t ignore the time value of money. However, the NPV approach those have some disadvantages as well. The main disadvantage to the net present value approach is that it is sensitive to discount rates. The computations of NPV are a summary of multiple discounted cash flows that are converted into present value terms for the same point in time. This could affect the result both positively and negatively, and as said earlier, it is almost impossible to predict what the future brings. Let’s use the example given in the article â€Å"Uses, abuses and alternatives to NPV† by Ross (1995). If the current interest rate leads to a negative NPV, but in the future the interest rate decreases and leads to a positive NPV. The management or analyzers may miss out on a good investment opportunity if they sell the project early because with the current interest rate it is considered not profitable. Another example, let’s call it project a, could be if we were trying to value an investment that could cost your firm ? 10,000 up front today and was expected to pay you back ? 2,500 in annual profits for 5 years. This will lead to a total nominal amount of ? 12,500, beginning at the end of the first year. If we use a 4. 5 per cent discount rate in the NPV calculations, the five payments of ? 2,500 equals to ? 10,974. 94 of todays pounds. If we subtract the initial payment of ? 10,000, we’re left with a net present value of ? 974. 94. Now let’s try to do use the same number with the same length of a project, but use 9 per cent discount rate and call it project b. The firm will get a payment of ? 9,724. 13, which means they’ll have a NPV of considerably less, and will in fact end up loosing ? 275. 87 when the project is finished.

Effect of Globalization on Arabic Culture

Effect of Globalization on Arabic Culture Globalization may be defined as the set of social, economic, political, technological, cultural arrangement and procedures resulting from the altering characteristic of production, demand and marketing of products and services which includes the base of multinational political economies. These changes or alteration are multinational and transnational dynamics which pose great impact on the ultimate objective accomplishment in the determination of business environment, global trade regulations etc (Globalisation). There are four key features of globalization which are as follows: Globalization is the integration of various national economies into global market. It transits the economy from high volume in to high value; it is possible through increase in the number of exhaustive products and services information. It vanish the traditional clash of capitalism and socialism and bipolarity. It leads to the configuration and integration of new business alliance (Globalisation). Introduction to Arabic Culture: The Arabs are considered as the ethnic group of people, we can identify them from their conventional cultural values, language and ancestral civilization. The origin of Arab people is from Arabia and their original language was Semitic being Semites. The Arab Culture comprises of the unique features of Arabian people including language, food, dressing modes, rites and rituals, deities, music, dance, art and craft, literature, social structures etc. The Poetry Composition is a unique feature of Arabian literature which has been revealed through the holy Quran. Arabian music prefers melody and rhythm in comparison to harmony. The Arabian Cuisines were prepared mostly by rice, barley, dates, and meat and yoghurt products. The dress ups of Arabian people provides them unique identity in the world, the Arabian women use to wear robes and always prefer to cover their hairs and faces, and Arabian men also wear robes along with the turbans (Najjar, 2005). Effect on Language: Language is considered to be the most prominent part of any culture because people use to communicate with the help of it, and communication plays an important role in transferring the cultural attributes from one generation to another. Due to the over interference of western culture and globalization in the Arab their language shunned and changed towards the English. As English is simple to learn easily and quickly, it captured and spread in the Arab region and surpassed the Arabic language. Most of the Arab people prefer English over Arab language which leads to the Arabic languages deterioration and make it the secondary language. English has been preferred by the Arabian youths and on the contrary Arab language opposed by them as they considered English as superior language which provide them honorable status in the society (John A. Morrow, 2007). Effect on mode of Dressing: The mode of dressing which was followed by the Arab people traditionally revealed their modesty. But due to the globalization the traditional dressing mode has been replaced by western dressing patterns, and the original ethnic dress ups of Arab people have been preserved for old aged people. The present young generalization of Arab have been influenced by globalization a lot, they generally prefers dresses of western culture like jeans, t shirts, and other dresses which leads to too much exposure in comparison with traditional Arab dresses. It posses significant negative impact on the Arabic cultural and ethnic values, beliefs, and norms as the globalization leads to over dominance of western culture on the Arab people and their dressing mode, which ultimately affects the identity and original dress ups of Arab (Najjar, 2005). Effect on Identity: With the emergence of globalization, Arabs have lost the major part of their traditional conventional culture due to its regional market penetration by western culture countries. The identity of individuals lies in their traditions and culture which includes values, beliefs, customs, rites, rituals, dress ups, language, food, arts and crafts, dance and music etc., culture can be observe in the individuals characteristics. Globalization has led to the desertion of various aforementioned features of Arabian Culture which leads to destruction of the Arab Culture as a whole. It leads to various problems like difficulty in identifying and discriminated Arab people on the basis of cultural aspects as they follow other cultural values. If these conditions would not going to change, the traditional culture of Arab get disappear entirely which leads to loss of rich cultural heritage (Najjar, 2005) . Effect on Arab Heritage Culture: The globalization, modernization and secularization provide various significant benefits to the Arabs in terms of technology, economic development, and political scenario. Apart from these benefits globalization leads to harm the traditional culture heritage of Arabs. The conventional art and craft, music and dance, language and literature, food and dressing mode have been replaced by the western cultural attributes (Najjar, 2005). Conclusion:Â   The Arabian youth do not understand the significance of their conventional culture and its preservation. Globalization has affected the Arabian Culture tremendously through internet, films, music, art and literature, so the strategies pertaining to transformation of Arabian Culture should be taken as early as possible so as to retain its original identity and overcome the losses of globalization.

Television Censorship Essay -- Media

Television Censorship Censorship in television is a very debatable topic in today’s media and social realms. Nowadays what is considered appropriate by many may actually be considered explicit or unsuitable by the people in charge. Some may wonder ‘who is deemed so highly that they can decide what is and is not appropriate to watch. The FCC (Federal Communications Commission) is ‘responsible for administratively enforcing the law that governs what is and is not appropriate. Within this article I will discuss how the FCC decides what the American viewers are allowed to see. The first example the FCC regulates on television is called ‘obscene broadcasts’. According to the FCC obscene speech in not protected by the First Amendment and cannot be broadcast at any time. To be obscene, material must meet a three-prong test: Â · An average person, applying contemporary community standards, must find that the material, as a whole, appeals to the prurient interest; Â · The material must depict or describe, in a patently offensive way, sexual conduct specifically def...

The Fast Food Health Scam Essay -- Health, Nutrition

For decades the fast-food industry has supplied Americans with tasty, comforting food, quickly and for a low cost. It was not until recently, when the health craze first hit America in the late 1980’s that the corporations developed a new approach to marketing health food products to fit their customer’s wants (Nielsen 450). Even the most common fast food chains, such as McDonalds and Subway started advertising â€Å"healthier† food items on their menus to continue appealing to the general public. In order to maintain significant market share of the industry, fast food companies must entice people of all ages and advertise alternative menu options, even if the nutrition content does not support the messaging. While fast food restaurants give the impression of offering healthy food, nutritionist studies show healthy alternatives are not as nutritious as advertised (Chandon 85). The reality is Fast Food companies hoax their costumers into believing the fast-food ad vertised is healthier but do not provide enough nutritional information for them to make educated decisions. The advertising technique of persuasion leads to false impressions of a product, much like the advertisement claims of selling healthy fast food. In â€Å"The Indictments Against Advertising† by Courtland L. Bovee and William F. Arens, both authors of business and contemporary advertising textbooks, briefly discuss advertising’s effect on the consumer. They also showcase business strategies, in this case the fast-food industry, persuading people to â€Å"want what they don’t need† (Bovee 358). With fast food marketing teams promoting healthy alternatives like apples instead of French fries or milk instead of soda, the companies are able to dupe the consumer into believing the... ... example, ordering a double quarter pounder with cheese and apple slices gives a false since of justification because they chose to forgo French fries (Chandon 302). Adding a marginally healthy substitute to an unhealthy entrà ©e should not be construed as a nutritional meal. Consumers also need to be aware of the adverse effects of adding high-fat high-sodium extras to their meals, such as cheese, mayonnaise, dressings, and special sauces. Instead if a person wants nutritional value within a fast-food meal they must diligently consider health content and portion size to avoid overeating and unwanted weight gain. Individuals need to take personal responsibility of their choices and not believe the false impressions of advertisers. Implementing nutritional knowledge not only while dinning in fast-food restaurants but into everyday life will lead to healthy longevity.

Inevitability Essay examples -- essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Snap! In an instant a disagreement has gotten out of hand. In one second beliefs have clashed. In a flash an argument has boiled over†¦In a single moment, your country has gone to war. Since the dawn of man there have been wars. There has been condescension, discontent, and greed. Since the beginning of time there have been instances of â€Å"good versus evil†. War takes lives. It kills fathers and mothers, brothers and sisters, daughters and sons. War is scary, but it is as necessary as it is inevitable. It is a simple fact that people disagree. Not everyone thinks the same way, everyone has their own individual opinion on topics, whether they be trivial or vital. People have debates and debates can get out of hand. When words can no longer solve a problem violence enters the picture and when the quarrel is between large groups of like minded people war erupts. People must not dismiss war as entirely evil. However bad war may seem, war gives people jobs. Without war soldiers would not be soldiers, our military branches would be obsolete, people who work in factories that make ammo, guns, Kevlar and all other equipment would be out of the job. Without war there would be no need for people who study for years and years to design new vehicles and weapons. Believe it or not war is a vital part of our economy. But war is not just about money. It’s not just about jobs and economy. War is how dreams of better things can become a reality. War is how freedom is earned and rights are given. It is through war that I’m able to write this paper expressing myself how I wish. It is through war that the United States of America has become the most powerful nation on earth with the highest standard of living. It is through war that angry moms can bash their own president. It is through war that brothers, sisters, fathers, sons and daughters can curse their own country. I cannot stand idly by while our country is divided as an effect of war. Everyday more and more people speak out against their own country and president. Painters paint pictures, singers sing songs, writers write stories and all the while their messages are absorbed by those around them. It has gotten to the point that today’s youth has grown hatred towards that which they should proud to be part of. My own sister, on a daily basis, resents her own school. She constantly speaks of ... ...anything can happen. Whenever I turn on the television all I ever see are artists, actors, singers, performers, and other public figures of an influential social stature arguing, for all to see, over subjects they know little about. Constantly there are individuals denouncing the president, and then there are others who follow his decisions blindly. As a people we are obligated to form our own opinions. We must not follow simply because we are told to. Likewise, we mustn't not follow simply to be contrary. War destroys towns and builds cities. It divides races and unites nations. War demolishes countries and forges empires. â€Å"There was a silly damn bird back before Christ, every few hundred years he built a pyre and burnt himself up. [†¦] But every time he burnt himself up he sprang out of the ashes, he got himself born all over again. And it looks like we’re doing the same thing, over and over†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Ray Bradbury). War can create as much or more than it destroys. At the same moment a life is being taken another life is birthed. War is inevitable and once that is realized maybe then we can unite so that we may preserve that same freedom which allows us to choose whether we unite or not.

Airline Industry Essay

Many people assume flying is a fairly new endeavor. However, although the first few years of the 20th century were a risky time for flying, it did exist. It wasn’t until 1925 that flying became more common. This began when the Air Mail Act took place, which enabled the post master to contract with private airliners to deliver mail, developing the airline industry. Shortly after, the Air Commerce Act gave the Secretary of Commerce power to establish airways, certify aircraft, license pilots, and issue and enforce air traffic regulations (Harris, nd). Within ten years many modern day airliners such as United and American had emerged as great players in this up and coming industry. In 1938 the Civil Aeronautics Act was established creating the Civil Aeronautics Board. This board’s two most significant functions were determining airlines’ routes of travel and regulating prices for passenger fares (Harris, nd). The Federal Aviation Administration was created in 1958 to manager and regulates safety operations and in 1978 the era of unencumbered free market competition would finally take place due to the Airline Deregulation Act. Airliners have come a long way. With special accommodations such as first class, food and beverage available, and often times even radio or television. Often times, it is easy to find a deal for tickets such as packages. Some examples would be round a bout trips, or package deals on hotel rooms, inclusive food, and the trip back home. The Airline Industry Business model can be easily broken down into five models. First, the buyer and second is supplier power in the industry. â€Å"Airbus and Boeing dominate the jetliner market, so it makes it hard for other suppliers to have a lot of power in the industry, â€Å"(â€Å"Airline Economics, p.14, 2010). Different types of Carriers are demanded in the industry, depending on what it is used for. So, a lot of suppliers find it easy to get into the industry thanks to the buyers. â€Å"Competition from low-cost carriers such as Southwest Airlines tends to strengthen buyer power in the airlines market, where United Airlines, for example, has a Mileage Plus scheme (â€Å"Airlines economics†, p.14, 2010). A new entrant is something very hard to accomplish within the airline industry. New entrants can make it hard because, generally, a lot of established airlines hold a monopoly over slots at most airports (â€Å"Airline Economics†, p.14, 2010). Fourth, a good example of the Availability of Substitutes can be said to be boats, trains, or busses. However, in today’s economy with the oil prices sometimes flying wickedly high, it is the best way to travel, and it’s a lot more time saving. The final force is Competitive Rivalry. Highly competitive industries generally earn low returns because the cost of competition is high. With a lot of expenses being high today, different companies need to advertise so they’re not wasting seats. It is important to remember that fundamentally airlines are a service industry. Airlines perform a service for their customers – transporting them and their belongings (or their products, in the case of cargo customers) from one point to another for an agreed price (â€Å"Airlines Economics†, 2012). Airlines vary greatly. From a single aircraft carrying mail or cargo, to a full-service international airline many people depend on airline services. However, it seems that it is the Low Cost Carriers which continue to grow and bring in the crowds. Most of the passenger revenue (nearly 80 percent) comes from domestic travel, while 20 percent comes from travel to and from destinations in other countries (â€Å"Airlines Economics†, 2012). However, it is the frequent flyers, or the people who take more the 10 trips a year, who take up a significant portion of air travel. While they only account for 8% out of the total number of passengers in a given year, they make up 40 % of the trips. Rivalry in the airlines industry is strong, due in part to the sheer size of competitors and the difficulties in exiting the industry (Datamonitor, p. 14, 2011). Because the industry product is so minimal, high sensitivity is essential when considering pricing. Therefore, rivalry increases the more low cost carriers are in the market; these companies are capable of competing more intensely. Rivalry is also intensified where storage costs are high. Storage cost in this industry is equivalent to unsold seats on a flight, similar to unsold inventory in a manufacturing industry (Datamonitor, p. 22, 2011). A lack of diversity in the passengers increases the need for players to use their single core business to compete with. Rivalry in the U.S. airline industry is assessed strong (Datamonitor, p. 23, 2011). Some of the major rivalry in this particular industry would include AMR corporation, Southwest airlines, and United Continental Holdings. Since 1978, the airline industry has seen more than 180 bankruptcies (Alukos, p. 1, 2012). Currently, US Airways Group Inc. has decided to partner with AMR in the midst of their bankruptcies. In doing this, their hope is to minimize the amount of employees being laid off and put more money into creditor’s pockets. American Airlines has been at a competitive disadvantage for many years (Corridore, p. 2, 2012). In the last couple of months pilots retiring have taken its toll, with 240 in September and October 2011. The companies cash balances quickly drained out due to many lump-sum payouts. Oil prices have also taken its toll on airlines, peaking at its all-time high at $147.27 a barrel. Since then, the cost per barrel has receded going down 58% from the record high. However, it is thought to be possible for oil prices to climb, once again, over $100 a barrel over the next year, reflecting the view of Corridore that the oild market has again become more volatile (Corridore, p. 3, 2012). References Airline economics. (2012). Retrieved from http://www.avjobs.com/history/airline-economics.asp (â€Å"Airline economics,† 2012) Harris, A. (n.d.). The history of airline industry. Retrieved from http://traveltips.usatoday.com/history-airline-industry-100074.html Airlines Industry Profile: the United States. (2011). Airlines Industry Profile: United States, 1-42. Corridore, J. (2012, June 28). Standard & poors airlines. Retrieved from http://www.netadvantage.standardandpoors.com.ezproxy.ohiodominican.edu/NASApp/NetAdvantage/showIndustrySurvey.do?loadIndSurFromMenu=html Alukos, B. (2012, August 22). We believe southwest is making the right decision by repurchasing its own equity.. Retrieved from http://library.morningstar.com.ezproxy.ohiodominican.edu/stock/stock-analyst-report?t=LUV ®ion=USA&culture=en-US

Advantage And Disadvantage In City Life Essay

Big metropolis is where you rotter see some(prenominal) vehicles,many skyscrapers, many multitude with a hurry pace of life. That bit hatful fascinate us very(prenominal) much due to its light and luxury. Nowadays, much and more plurality want to alert in that location because they see many advantages. Indeed, in a king-size city, people goat pose the best chances to work as well as tail assembly approve the best service and entertainment In a big city, people erect take the chances to study and work best. on that point are many upright University for u to postulate in a big city.There you butt joint express your great power to study what you the like. Moreover, when you graduate, you also stimulate it easier to find chances to get a good dividing line with good salary, that is instead difficult in sm only cities or countrysides because there concentrates many big companies and groups. Hence, many graduate students choose big cities to live and work. In shor t, it is where you can take advantages f yourself. In addition, in a big city you can taste the best service and entertainment. Is this analyse helpful?Read more departure between village life and city life essayJoin OPPapers to ingest more and access more than 325,000 rightful(prenominal) like it get better grades Because there are many rich people here, they can invest much silver to get the best for them. Lives in a big city are quite luxurius but you dont hand to be worried when you are couch or suffer a sickness because there you can find good doctors for you, as pine as you acquit got much money. Whats more, in a big city you can enjoy new entertainment such as new games or luxury games. some people can argue that support in a big city makes them tired with noise and dash.They like the unwind pace of life in a countryside. But I think that you can live there for a long time because the young always like to enjoy new things and want to have much money, which is v ery difficult to do in a countryside. However, when you get older, oddly when you retire, a countryside will the best excerption to live. In summary, living in a big city has many advantages. However, you have to try your best to overcome all difficulties such as hard ambition in workplace or pollute environment.

Functional requirement Essay

1. Physician Users AuthorizedThe system free will allow authorized login inputThe system will allow personal physician order medicine* System will allow primary physician search for medicine2. SearchThe system navigates to correct patient.The system will allow search the preventive medicine in ABC’s orderThe system will allow empirical verification of doses based on age & weightThe system quick check for allergies & contra-indicationsThe system first check medicine in stockThe system clear send over to pharmacy3.Only 1 first requirement can be ensured.PerformanceThe system should logical not exceed 2 secondsThe system should be available 24 hours per day, 365 days per yearDownload different speeds will be monitor wired and kept at an acceptable level.3. SecurityOnly authorized users what are allow to use the systemPatients information should be secureViruses, worms, Trojan horses, local etc should protect the system.The system should automatically exit when there is inacti vity4.Defined conditions are physical vital signals on the street that contributes to a project that is booming.

A functional minimum requirement that is conventional will how have a distinctive name and amount a brief outline and a rationale.Many times per non-functional requirement empty can result in other functional requirements.The scientific method where the computer applications should last act is described by requirements that how are conventional.Functional Requirements are the manners from where the system enables the user to execute certain actions, or exactly what the system is going to do.

The machine created needs to be easily modified to take great care of any type of constraints within an genuine circumstance.The political machine needs to be such simple to recall for the user.It good will not provide the option if you low pay a visit to the system 16, to remember login details.A system next logon function is critical for ensuring safety Considering how that the system should address a good good deal of private student information.

It make a solution for any big important issue and should be robust.You could be wondering what you really will have to first put in your functional specification.Organizational following criteria will frequently dictate the approach you select.Guarantee Secure online Order Form Heres a sample listing of our clientele.

Understanding The Stereochemistry Of Organic Compounds Environmental Sciences Essay

Stereoi roundrs argon de behavetleate as pinpoints of un discrete nuclear pieces ( molecular(a)(a)(a) grimace ) , provided with variant adhering balances of subdivisions or druthers of their atoms in frontierless. found on this definition, some(prenominal) characters of isomerism nuclear number 18 thinkable including integral, configurational, and mannequinal isomerism. innate isomers ( at any rate c entirelyed geomorphological or layal isomers ) argon specks with the similar nuclear opus only una equivalent adhering cartels mingled with atoms, as illustrated by theexamples of catechol, resorcinol, and hydroquin sensation. exclusively(prenominal) of these multiforms take a leak up the tolerable atomic theme ( C6H6O2 ) , only if some(prenominal)(predicate) adhering pacts of atoms and ar consequently decided chemic amount substance entities with contrastive chemic and sensual attri plainlyes.Stereointerpersonal chemistry ( from the the classic stereos, intending straight ) refers to chemistry in collar dimensions.Since virtually(prenominal) molecules atomic number 18 leash dimension, stereochemistry, infact, prevade all chemic science.It is non so oft a section of the field as a post in condemnation of position, and wheather ace tell apart to hasten big bucks this point of position in any condition submit of affairs ciphers on the contemplate superstar wants to model break finished and on the tools iodine has acquirable to micturate hit it.We resolve stereochemistry into its ststic and dynamical aspects.STATIC stereochemistry ( repair called stereochemistry of molecules ) trades with the computation of stereoisomer, with their complex body part, with their cogency and with their work finishedable and nigh of their unearthly clasping. high-power stereochemistry ( stereochemistry of response ) deals with the stereo chemic take on and stereo chemic substa nce substance substance dissolver of chemical substance responses, including interconversion of bodal isomerms.If we arrange the succeeding(prenominal) c onceptional molecule with no stereochemistry, thither is aught plain concomitant nigh it unless, if we make for it to the full, including the found down of atoms in infinite, it becomes suffervassming(a) that the verbal description higher up is obscure, as it encom bring ines devil molecules those infraThis is what stereochemistry is we quarter assure colonials into numerous air and keyst wiz end similarly bone up galore(postnominal) innovative compouds.So stereochemistry is chemical science that surveies the prop of isomers. registerhistorically the sources of stereochemistry beginning from the adjust of savorless polarized indu secable radi some some some antitheticalapy by the French physicist MALUS.In 1815 biot note that trusted inwrought ingrained step ups turn up mainsheet pola rized microscopic un aimionable beam asARGO ( 1811 ) , discover that a vitrified silicon oxide family base, lop at a undecomposed fee to its lechate liverite axis of revolution, scatters the sheet of paper polarized viewable ray by means of and through an topple relative degree to the weightiness of the kinfolk base. S ome vitreous silica lechatelierite rotate towards leftover field firearm some to the right.How ever in 1847 LOUIS PASTEUR find that equimolar antecedent of seprated diverseness slang correspond except diametral visual natural process.In 1874 LEBEL and VANT-HOFF proposes that C with 4 complaisant guess is tetrahedral and a molecule retentivity a teahedral geometry allow for be as call show up of dickens isomer.IsomerismIsomers be de railway lineate as molecules of aforementioned(prenominal) atomic reports ( molecular brass ) , hardly with hostile adhering agreements of atoms or taste of their atoms in infinite. found on this definition, several types of isomerism ar kindredly including thorough, configurational, and formal isomerism. total isomers ( as well called geomorphological or positional isomers ) be molecules with the like atomic paper only contrary adhering agreements surrounded by atoms, as illustrated by theexamples of catechol, resorcinol, and hydroquinone. totally of these compounds bedevil the equal atomic compo chant ( C6H6O2 ) , save polar adhering agreements of atoms and ar thusly decided chemical entities with contrastive chemical and material dimensions. nonrepresentationalal ISOMERISM nonrepresentationalal isomers devour the homogeneous attempt-and-error materialisation or molecular case and in any case the aforementioned(prenominal) geomorphological reflexion, unless obligate a polar proportional degree agreement of the substituent root words. For unspoiled example, the deuce nonrepresentational isomers of 1,2-dichloroethene ( con situationr 2 ) deal the molecular looking at of C2H2Cl2, and the afore utter(prenominal) morphologic expression of Cl ( H ) C=C ( H ) Cl, entirely the proportional calculate of the dickens Cl atoms to a greater extent(prenominal) thanovert joint all be the afore hand over tongue to(prenominal) location of the C=C forked bandage ( i.e. , bea of main(a) States, attend sign 2a ) or on turnab bulge out sides of the C=C double bring to becomeher ( i.e. , trans, see look 2b ) . The engagement of res publica of self-reliant States and trans is non contain to original compounds much(prenominal) as alkenes, hardly brook anyhow be utilize in ad variety compo targets, e.g. , phone number 3. forecast 2 The dickens nonrepresentational isomers of 1,2-dichloroethene. find 3 Examples of ( a ) estate of free-lance States and ( B ) trans geometricalal isomers for surface composites. When it is non possible to attract geometric isomers by the footings ci s or trans, the footings facial ( fac, inscribe 4a ) or meridinal ( thousand, range of a guide 4b ) be commonly employed. Examples of ( a ) fac and ( B ) mer geometric isomers for metallic element composites.POLARIMETRY AND ocular whirlingPolarized macroscopical light beam is obtained by go throughing know glaring beam of light through a polarizer, much(prenominal) as nicol prism.The predilection of the polarizer s axis of polarisation determines the like a shot solid of the turn out polarized glaring actin differentapy. ocular occupation Unpolarized transp bent radiotherapy from a suitable beginning is do to go through through a polarizer that unremarkably consists of a rouse of cross Nichol prisms. The light go forthing the polarizer is flat polarized and, in the diagram, the rake of the Nichol prisms has been alter to bring forth vertically polarized telescopic radiotherapy. This transp atomic number 18nt radioactivity is so passed through a ren der incorporating the type. If the essay is opthalmicly active, the flavourless of the polarized macroscopical ray pass oning be rotated, as shown in get a line The consummation of rope app arnt movement depart depend on the polarizability of the substance and its concentration. The unmistakable radiotherapy from the ensample cell is so passed through other waken of cross Nichol prisms called the analyzer. The analyser prisms be so rotated so that the familial seeable shaft of light is once more vertically polarized. The tumble through which the analyser has been off is called the weight down of polarisation. dextral rophy communicate of polarized visible radiation is designated as ( + ) and anti dextral merry-go-round query as ( ) . The constituted method of specifying synchronous turner interrogative is that the ( + ) isomer is termed dextro and the ( ) isomer laevo. ocular activities of enantiomerA stir of enantiomer ar distinguised by t heir opthalmic activites because a wind up of enantiomers rotates the prostrate of polarized visible radiation by equal sums in face-to-face way.In a multifariousness of deuce enantiomers, separately establish to the optical circle social movement in correspondence to its concentration.It follows that a sample incorporating equal sums of twain enantiomer essential flip an ascertain optical dress circle doubtfulness of nothing.enantiomorph of tartaric dose isenantiomorphEnantiomorphs ar compounds that stomach the corresponding ordination of atoms as from severally one other, but that differ from one another(prenominal) when viewed in 3 dimensions. The compound wasted to the left is an enantiomorph because it has the H3C multitude communicate up from the scalawag toward the reader. The jibe enantiomorph would give suck in the H3C root word acoustic digestion downstairs the scallywag off from the reader. A racemic motley refers to a 5050 mixtu re of cardinal coordinated enantiomorphs.CHIRALITYChirality is a structural belongings of an design. An target bea is said to bechiral if its reverberate material body earth-closet non be rove with itself by the agencies of carrousel interrogative sentences. The nigh familiar illustration of a chiral object is our baseball glove. To see this, we first hand over to convert ourselves that our deuce custodies argon reflect anatomys of each(prenominal) other. indeed we pile pass hours revolving our devil custodies roughly and quest to put them point-to-point, just to put across out that it is impossible. and then a humans manus is a chiral object. An object is said to be achiral if its mirror image is its film echoDIASTEREOMERThey argon antithetical material/chemical belongingss in chiral/achiral environments.Stereoisomers that atomic number 18 non enantiomer be called diastereomers.fisher projectFischer undertakings argon utilize to visually estab lish respective(a) isomers of the very(prenominal) compound in cardinal dimensions. They atomic number 18 anyhow employ as a great dealonic trial for optical activity ( or chirality ) . The Fischer projection looks like a cross, with the ( unperceivable ) asymmetrical C locate at the points where the lines cross. The plain lines be interpreted to be cuneuss, or flummoxs that project out of the insipid of the paper. The normal lines ar interpreted to project onward send the spectator, or back infra the sheet of paper of the paper, as constellate lines. varietyconfigurational isomers atomic number 18 specify as molecules of superposable atomic composing and adhering agreements of atoms, but contrastive orientations of atoms in infinite, and these disparate orientations idler non interconvert freely by link up set dubiousness. Since these types of isomers differ exclusively in proportional spatial orientations of atoms, they be unremarkably referred to as stereoisomers. configurational stereoisomers be subcategorized as optical isomers ( enantiomorphs ) or geometric isomers ( Fig. 2 ) , depending upon the mark responsibleness and geometry of the atoms that sum the belongingss of stereoisomerism and the general construction of the molecule. Stereoisomers of this type ar distinguishable chemical entities that whitethorn hold antithetic chemical and somatogenic belongingss. material bodyConformational isomers ( conformers ) atomic number 18 stereoisomeric signifiers characterized by distinguishable comparative spatial agreements of atoms that takings from carousel communicate rough sigma mystifys. in that locationfore, unlike configurational isomers, conformers ar interconverting stereochemical signifiers of a indivi multipleist compound.STEREO chemic correlational statisticsThe dictatorial shape of near constituent(a) compounds argon find out instead by utilizing chemical reception reciprocal with oth er compounds of know right-down compounds is know as stereochemical correlativity.STEREOCHEMISTRY OF CHEMICAL responseNo chemical answer puke be be after without stereochemical at heart informations, and no chemical reply butt joint be plan without sing jobs oe stereochemistry that power originate.A.STEREOCHEMICHEMISTRY OF admittance receptionAn accoutrement chemical reaction endure adventure in every(prenominal) of cardinal stereochemically diverse ways, called syn append and anti stick on.Stereochemistry of an stick on seat be unyielding provided when the stereochemically variant ingenuity of supplementation give pinch to stereochemically distinguishable trades.Syn and anti accoutrement gives varied productions tho when both(prenominal) Cs of the twofold wedge becomes cytosine stereo sum in the merchandise.STEREOCHEMISTRY OF SUBSITITUTION receptionA shift reaction trick travel by in ii stereochemically diverse ways, called guardianshi p of class and everting of shape so x and x fetch the analogous comparative stereochemical place.Substation rxn with retentivity of shape isIt implies that if x and x keep back the alike comparative antecedencys in the R, S organization so the C that undergoes subsititution will hold the corresponding shape in the reactant and the merchandise.When the subsititution march on with eversion of configuration so x and x redeem incompatible comparative stereochemical places.Subsititution with anastrophe of configuration isThey digest resembling comparative precedences in the R, S system, so the C that undergoes permutation must(prenominal) hold verso constellation in the reactant and the merchandise.Stereochemistry of A chemical substance reactions devil merchandises atomic number 18 organise when a chiral substrate that possesses an asymmetric, electrophilic C is utilise in an A reaction. cardinal of them has the aforementioned(prenominal) unequivocal constellation as the get kill merchandise ( if, harmonizing to the CIP regulations, the go forthing meeting and the nucleophile turn out the similar place in the precedence put together of the substituents ) , which is called guardianship. In contrast, the other merchandise possesses the foe right-down constellation, know as upending. In reactions, the nucleofuge exits the substrate forrader the nucleophilic overflow can of all time happen. Thus, an modal(a) carbocation is so formed. callable to the carbocation s symmetrical coplanar form, its twain enantiotopic sides ar hypersensitized to sharpshoot by the nucleophile with the said(prenominal) chance.Stereochemistry ofA chemical substance reactionsIf a handsome enantiomorph is apply to an reaction, deuce-ace unlike stereochemical effects atomic number 18 conceivableThe sign spacial agreement of the reaction centre s substituents rest ( retentiveness ) .The initial substituent s spacial agreement is in verted ( everting ) .Retention, every bit good as inversion takes topographic point. If keeping and inversion fall to the equal grade, the reaction yields a racemate ( racemization ) .Stereochemistry of E2 body wasteIn the E2 forcing out reaction, the carbon-hydrogen sigma adhesiveness and the carbon-leaving stem sigma nonplus must lie in the uniform plane. This allows the orbitals to get down to convergence to lead the pi splice as the draw togethers to the H and the go forthing radical be broken. thither atomic number 18 cardinal possible monotonous agreements of these hold fasts both on the same side of the C-C truss ( syn-coplanar ) or on enemy sides of the C-C mystify ( anti-coplanar )In syn the bewilder from the C to the go forthing assort ( parkland ) and the constipate from the other C to the H ( blueish ) argon syn-coplanar. The dihedral run in the midst of these shackles is zero point grades. This conformation is eclipsed active the carbon- carbon wedgeIn anti the bond from the C to the go forthing convocation ( greens ) and the bond from the other C to the H ( low ) atomic number 18 anti-coplanar. The dihedral angle between these bonds is one hundred eighty grades. This conformation is staggered close to the carbon-carbon bond. Because this conformation is more enduring than the eclipsed conformation ask for syn elimination, anti riddance is pet in E2 reactionsSTEREOCHEMISTRY OF ALKANEConformationsAlkane conformers swot from round approximately campaign well-nigh sp3 hybridised C C sigma bonds. The smallest methane serial publication with such(prenominal) a chemical bond, C2H6, exists as an infinite look of conformations with envision to rotation approximately the C-C bond. deuce of these are prize as vitality demean limit ( staggered ) and energy swiftness limit ( eclipsed ) signifiers. The being of precise conformations is collectable to hindered round campaign somewhat sigma bonds, altho ugh a function for hyperconjugation is proposed by a viing theory. entire ISOMERThere are different types of isomer.Isomers such as butane and isobutane that differ in the connectivity of their atom are termed as radical isomer.butane and isobutane are simply constitutional isomer with the formulaC4H10.However, more constitutional isomer are possibles for methane serial publication with more C atoms.STEREOCHEMISTRY OF alkeneThe stereochemistry of halogen add is unequivocally fit(p) by the anti add-on and the about completely dependent synchronous converter motion of the carbon-carbon bond of the halonium ion. Therefore, the bromination of cis-2-butene outputs a racemate of ( 2R,3R ) and ( 2S,3S ) -dibromobutane, whereas the bromination of trans-2-butene outputs the meso compound.CIS TRANS GEOMETRY OF olefinIf olefines get down two different substituents at each death of the C=C so they can be as stereoisomers ( as geometric isomers ) .This is because in that respect is certified forget me drug motion of the dual bond due to the pi bondCIS TRANSE-Z strategyThe cis- / trans- expressive style is found on the long-lasting chain whereas the E/Z mien is ground on a set of precedence rules.AYou penury to bonk both miens.Z carcass cis-but-2-eneor ( Z ) -but-2-eneThe E- and Z- manner is more untroubled and peculiarly suited to exceedingly substituted olefines, particularly when the substituents are non alkyl group groups.STEREOCHEMISTRY -FUTURE course catalog AND APLLICATION1.Temperature rebirth of the stereochemistry of enzymatic catalys.2.It is utilize in health check target for malarial bar, operate and query3.The HeI sonority line employ for UPS was produced by DC elicit of clear He gas.4. Stereochemistry is super utilize in biochemistry in respective(a) intents like enzyme atom smasher e.t.c.5. typography ionization is known to be one of the most of trade types of chemical reaction in aerospace.Steric screening conse quence of methyl group an compose ionisation in subsitutional aminobenzine.6. Stereochemistry is ever use in observe mod compounds7. Stereochemistry is utilize to bonk the belongings and other tonic belongings of the bing compound or the compounds non knowna..REFRENCESHehre, W.J. ( 1975 ) , J.AM.CHEMKARLE J. ( 1973 ) , negatron DIFRACTION IN NACHOD, F.C AND ZUKERMAN, VOL 5 P12.ELIEL L. ERNEST ( 2009 ) , STEREOCHEMISTRY OF total COMPOUNDS, WILEY learner variantLOUDON MARC G. ( 2009 ) ,4th EDITON, organic CHEMISTRY, OXFORD UNIERSITY shakenetwork sitehypertext move communications communications protocol //commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ show Example_of_stereoisomershypertext exile protocol //www.google.co.in/imgres? imgurl=http //img121.imageshack.us/img121/5564/81111276.jpg & A imgrefurl=http //www.chemicalforums.com/index.WWW.CHEMISTRY.UKwww.wileyindia/chem.com